Diffusion and Migration: Their Roles in Indonesian Cultural History
The terms Diffusion and Migration must have been heard a lot when we learn Social Studies. Diffusion is the spread of cultural items from one place to another (Titiev, 1959, 446), which we may easily define as ‘cultural dispersion’. This happens through contacts between two different societies. It can be by war, trade, and so on. Since the spreading was carried out along with the movement of people, diffusion and migration are closely related.
As a matter of fact, some experts on anthropology, such as Grafton Elliot Smith, W. J. Perry, and Charles Hapgood, proposed the hyper-diffusion theory which said that every culture in the world originates from a single place. This of course had been confronted by other experts as pseudo-science.
But now let’s focus on how diffusion and migration configured Indonesian cultural history, the issue that has fascinated many archaeologists and historians. When we talk about Indonesian cultural history we will divide it into 4 phases. They are Prehistory, Classic, Islamic, and Colonial period. Each phase holds its own character.
1. Prehistory (< 5 Century AD)
This is the period when there was no written culture in any form. When this age began in Indonesia is unknown. But it ended since the discovery of the 4–5th century Yupa in Borneo. Men migration in this period is broadly explained by the Out of Africa and the Multiregional Evolution theories. But there are other theories closer to the diffusion idea, i.e. Out of Taiwan model. This theory is based on the evidence that the Austronesian language — the linguistic ancestry of the many mother tongues in Indonesia — was descended from Formosa, Taiwan. It means parts of Indonesian ancestors came from there. The similarity of Indonesia’s pottery, beads, and axes, as well as the remains of pig domestication on both Mainland and Islands of Southeast Asia, support this theory. (see: Bellwood, 2017).
2. Classic Period (5–15th Century AD)
This period began by Indianization, the process by which Indian philosophy was adopted by the ancient Indonesian. Indian religious belief, language, literature, arts, architecture, aristocracy, and social system bloomed in Indonesia. (see: Cœdès, 1975). Ksatria (Knights), Vaishya (Merchant), and Brahmins are the famous Indianization theories. But all of them are driven by the subject’s mobility.
3. Islamic Period (13–18th Century AD)
Various opinions about the introduction of Islam in Indonesia were expressed. Some had said that it came from Gujarat due to the similarities of the tombstones of Malikussaleh (the Sultan of Samudera Pasai) with the Gujarat type. Persian theory is based on the existence of Shia tradition in commemorating the death of Husain bin Ali on the 10th day of Muharram (Ashura) at some places in Indonesia. Yet the fact that Indonesian Moslems belong to the Shafi’i denomination brings forth the idea that Islam here is rooted in Mecca. All in all, every theory revolves around the arrival of the merchants which then adopted by local rulers and supported by marriages. (see: Burhanudin & Dijk, 2013).
4. Colonial Period (16–20th Century AD)
The fall of Constantinople had made Europeans seeking the spices straight to the Eastern World. In Indonesia, Dutch colony dominated this era so that their art and architecture, language, education, and evangelism totally flourished. (see: Ricklefs, 2008).
Honestly, all regions in Indonesia did not experience the cultural shift at the same time. Take a look at Western Indonesia. Ever since Hinduism flourished in this region, the prehistoric culture has been well preserved in some places — especially in the eastern part — even up to now. Therefore, we have to remember that the chronology is not absolute since it was built upon agreement.
But, the point is, the above explanation shows us that each phase of Indonesian cultural history is stirred by the movement of people, either by the arrival of outsiders or the proactive roles of Indonesian who went abroad and take the foreign culture home. There are reasons behind it. In this case, the reasons can be classified into push and pull factors (Anthony, 1990). For example, in the colonialism era, The Dutch, British, Portuguese, and others were not only pushed by the spice crisis. To find the new world and bring home the glorias were also their other interests. After the migration happened, as we’ve discussed previously, diffusion took place. Foreign culture sooner or later became familiar.
That is to say, immigrant’s stuffs were spread on the immigration land.
But there is a chance for a new culture to appear though it doesn’t erase the old one. It is called acculturation. For example, after the European architecture thrived in Indonesia, rich men picked up the elements of traditional house style to address the climate incompatibility, creating a new culture known as Indies architecture.
Meanwhile, there is also assimilation, a process in which we deal with a new culture without holding on to the old one.
Judging from what we learn above, it is true what Franz Boas once had said that culture is unique and relative. Diffusion and migration helped make it happen. Both are the dynamic process that played important roles in composing Indonesian cultural history.
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Bibliography
Anthony, David. 1990. “Migration in Archaeology: The Baby and the Bathwater.” American Anthropologist 92 (4): 895–914.
Bellwood, Peter. 2017. First Islander: Prehistory and Human Migration in Island Southeast Asia. Hoboken (NJ): Wiley Blackwell.
Burhanudin, J. & Kees van Dijk (eds). 2013. Islam in Indonesia. Amsterdam University Press: Amsterdam.
Cœdès, George. 1975. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. Edited by Walter F. Vella. Translated by Susan Brown Cowing. Canberra: Australian National University Press.
Ricklefs, M. C. 2008. A History of Modern Indonesia since C.1200. 4th. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Titiev, Mischa. 1959. Introduction to Cultural Anthropology. New York: Henry Holt and Co.
